Redox Homeostasis Alteration Is Restored through Melatonin Treatment in COVID-19 Patients: A Preliminary Study.

Type II pneumocytes are the target of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which alters their redox homeostasis to increase reactive oxygen species (ROS). Melatonin (MT) has antioxidant proprieties and protects mitochondrial function. In this study, we evaluated whether treatment with MT compensated for the redox homeostasis alteration in serum from COVID-19 patients. We determined oxidative stress (OS) markers such as carbonyls, glutathione (GSH), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), thiols, nitrites (NO2-), lipid peroxidation (LPO), and thiol groups in serum. We also studied the enzymatic activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), reductase (GR), thioredoxin reductase (TrxR), extracellular superoxide dismutase (ecSOD) and peroxidases. There were significant increases in LPO and carbonyl quantities (p ≤ 0.03) and decreases in TAC and the quantities of NO2-, thiols, and GSH (p < 0.001) in COVID-19 patients. The activities of the antioxidant enzymes such as ecSOD, TrxR, GPx, GST, GR, and peroxidases were decreased (p ≤ 0.04) after the MT treatment. The treatment with MT favored the activity of the antioxidant enzymes that contributed to an increase in TAC and restored the lost redox homeostasis. MT also modulated glucose homeostasis, functioning as a glycolytic agent, and inhibited the Warburg effect. Thus, MT restores the redox homeostasis that is altered in COVID-19 patients and can be used as adjuvant therapy in SARS-CoV-2 infection.

N-Acetyl Cysteine Restores the Diminished Activity of the Antioxidant Enzymatic System Caused by SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Preliminary Findings.

SARS-CoV-2 infects type II pneumocytes and disrupts redox homeostasis by overproducing reactive oxygen species (ROS). N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) is a precursor of the synthesis of glutathione (GSH) and it restores the loss of redox homeostasis associated to viral infections. The aim of the study is to evaluate the effect of the treatment with NAC on the enzymatic antioxidant system in serum from patients infected by SARS-CoV-2. We evaluated the enzymatic activities of thioredoxin reductase (TrxR), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), -S-transferase (GST), and reductase (GR) by spectrophotometry and the concentrations of the glutathione (GSH), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), thiols, nitrites (NO2-), and lipid peroxidation (LPO) in serum. The activity of the extracellular super oxide dismutase (ecSOD) was determined by native polyacrylamide gels, and 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) was measured by ELISA. A decrease in the activities of the ecSOD, TrxR, GPx, GST GR, (p = 0 ≤ 0.1), and the GSH, TAC, thiols, and NO2- (p ≤ 0.001) concentrations and an increase in LPO and 3-NT (p = 0.001) concentrations were found in COVID-19 patients vs. healthy subjects. The treatment with NAC as an adjuvant therapy may contribute to a reduction in the OS associated to the infection by SARS-CoV-2 through the generation of GSH. GSH promotes the metabolic pathways that depend on it, thus contributing to an increase in TAC and to restore redox homeostasis.

Eventos trombóticos y marcadores inflamatorios en pacientes con neumonía grave por síndrome respiratorio agudo severo coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) / Thrombotic events and inflammatory markers in patients with severe pneumonia due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) / Eventos trombóticos e marcadores inflamatórios em pacientes com pneumonia grave devido à síndrome respiratória aguda grave coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2)

Resumen: Introducción: La neumonía por SARS-CoV-2 se asocia a secreción importante de citoquinas y aglomeramiento de células inmunológicas, que activan las células endoteliales condicionando coagulopatía, afectando al pulmón en una fase temprana, con un fenotipo clínico del síndrome de dificultad respiratoria aguda (SDRA), que posteriormente progresa a respuesta inflamatoria sistémica desregulada por marcadores inflamatorios que causan mayor lesión endotelial generando trombosis. Muchos pacientes presentan niveles elevados de dímero D (DD), así como de proteína-C-reactiva (PCR), interleucina-6 (IL-6) y ferritina, supeditando la formación de coágulos, con la interrupción de la circulación (arterial o venosa) a cualquier nivel del sistema circulatorio. Objetivos: Determinar si existe relación entre los niveles elevados de marcadores inflamatorios y eventos trombóticos en pacientes con neumonía por SARS-CoV-2 con ventilación mecánica invasiva (VMI). Material y métodos: Realizamos estudio de una cohorte, observacional, retrospectivo y longitudinal, en pacientes que ingresaron a la Unidad de Terapia Respiratoria del Centro Médico ABC, de abril a julio de 2020, con diagnóstico de neumonía por SARS-CoV-2 con VMI. Utilizamos el programa STATA para el análisis estadístico. Efectuamos un análisis lineal de medidas repetitivas por regresión logística para evaluar el comportamiento cronológico de las variables inflamatorias. Posteriormente, ajustamos los marcadores inflamatorios con variables demográficas, para la obtención de certeza diagnóstica y predicción de riesgo de eventos trombóticos. Resultados: Analizamos un total de 100 pacientes, predominando el sexo masculino en 78%. El 18% presentó trombosis. Inicialmente, los marcadores inflamatorios estadísticamente significativos fueron DD (p = 0.010) con niveles de 1375.5 ng/mL (967-2651) y ferritina (p = 0.030) con niveles 1391.5 ng/mL (622-1779). Con el ajuste de variables inflamatorias por edad, género, índice de masa corporal (IMC) y escalas de gravedad, las variables estadísticamente significativas fueron DD (p = 0.001) y ferritina (p = 0.004), obteniendo certeza diagnóstica de 80.57% para predecir el riesgo de eventos trombóticos. Conclusión: El control estricto de los parámetros de laboratorio y un alto índice de sospecha son vitales para formular un enfoque de tratamiento personalizado para los pacientes, y también pueden ayudar a clasificar a los pacientes con alto riesgo de presentar eventos trombóticos. Nuestro modelo enfatiza que hay que tener precaución con niveles elevados de DD y ferritina.

Abstract: Introduction: SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia is associated with an important secretion of cytokines and agglomeration of immune cells, which activate endothelial cells conditioning coagulopathy, affecting the lung at an early stage, with a clinical phenotype of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS), which later progresses to a systemic inflammatory response deregulated by inflammatory markers that cause greater endothelial injury generating thrombosis. Many patients present high levels of D-dimer (DD), as well as C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and ferritin, subordinating the formation of clots, with the interruption of circulation (arterial or venous) at any level of the circulatory system. Objectives: To determine if there is a relationship between elevated levels of inflammatory markers and thrombotic events in patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia with invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV). Material and methods: We conducted an observational, retrospective and longitudinal cohort study in patients admitted to the Respiratory Therapy Unit of the ABC Medical Center, from April to July 2020, with a diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia with IMV. We use the STATA program for statistical analysis. We performed a linear analysis of repetitive measures by logistic regression to evaluate the chronological behavior of the inflammatory variables. Subsequently, we adjusted the inflammatory markers with demographic variables, to obtain diagnostic certainty and prediction of risk of thrombotic events. Results: We analyzed a total of 100 patients, the male sex prevailing in 78%. 18% had thrombosis. Initially the statistically significant inflammatory markers were DD (p = 0.010) with levels of 1375.5 ng/mL (967-2651) and ferritin (p = 0.030) with levels 1391.5 ng/mL (622-1779). With the adjustment of inflammatory variables by age, gender, Body Mass Index (BMI) and severity scales, the statistically significant variables were DD (p = 0.001) and ferritin (p = 0.004), obtaining a diagnostic certainty of 80.57% to predict risk of thrombotic events. Conclusion: Tight control of laboratory parameters and a high index of suspicion are vital to formulating a personalized treatment approach for patients, and can also help classify patients at high risk for thrombotic events. Our model emphasizes that caution must be exercised with elevated levels of DD and ferritin.

Resumo: Introdução: A pneumonia por SARS-CoV-2 está associada à secreção significativa de citocinas e aglomeração de células imunes, que ativam as células endoteliais, causando coagulopatia, afetando o pulmão em estágio inicial, com um fenótipo clínico de Síndrome do Desconforto Respiratório Agudo (SDRA), que posteriormente progride para uma resposta inflamatória sistêmica desregulada por marcadores inflamatórios que causam maior lesão endotelial gerando trombose. Muitos pacientes apresentam níveis elevados de D-dímero (DD), bem como de proteína C-reativa (PCR), Interleucina-6 (IL-6) e ferritina, causando formação de coágulos, com interrupção da circulação (arterial ou venosa) em qualquer nível do sistema circulatório. Objetivos: Determinar se existe uma relação entre níveis elevados de marcadores inflamatórios e eventos trombóticos em pacientes com pneumonia por SARS-CoV-2 com ventilação mecânica invasiva (VMI). Material e métodos: Foi realizado um estudo de coorte observacional, retrospectivo e longitudinal em pacientes internados na Unidade de Terapia Respiratória do Centro Médico ABC, de abril a julho de 2020, com diagnóstico de pneumonia por SARS-CoV-2 com VMI. Usamos o programa STATA para análise estatística. Realizamos uma análise linear de medidas repetitivas por regressão logística para avaliar o comportamento cronológico das variáveis inflamatórias. Posteriormente, ajustamos os marcadores inflamatórios com variáveis demográficas, para obter certeza diagnóstica e predizer o risco de eventos trombóticos. Resultados: Analisamos um total de 100 pacientes, com predominância do sexo masculino em 78%. 18% apresentaram trombose. Inicialmente, os marcadores inflamatórios estatisticamente significativos foram DD (p = 0.010) com níveis de 1375.5 ng/mL (967-2651) e ferritina (p = 0.030) com níveis de 1391.5 ng/mL (622-1779). Com o ajuste das variáveis inflamatórias por idade, sexo, índice de massa corporal (IMC) e escalas de gravidade, as variáveis estatisticamente significativas foram DD (p = 0.001) e ferritina (p = 0.004), obtendo-se certeza diagnóstica de 80.57% para predizer o risco de eventos trombóticos. Conclusão: O controle estrito dos parâmetros laboratoriais e um alto índice de suspeita são vitais na formulação de uma abordagem de tratamento personalizado para os pacientes, e também podem ajudar a classificar os pacientes com alto risco de apresentar eventos trombóticos. Nosso modelo enfatiza que deve-se ter cautela com níveis elevados de DD e ferritina.

Hyperglycemia and Loss of Redox Homeostasis in COVID-19 Patients.

The infection with SARS-CoV-2 impairs the glucose−insulin axis and this contributes to oxidative (OS) and nitrosative (NSS) stress. Here, we evaluated changes in glucose metabolism that could promote the loss of redox homeostasis in COVID-19 patients. This was comparative cohort and analytical study that compared COVID-19 patients and healthy subjects. The study population consisted of 61 COVID-19 patients with and without comorbidities and 25 healthy subjects (HS). In all subjects the plasma glucose, insulin, 8-isoprostane, Vitamin D, H2S and 3-nitrotyrosine were determined by ELISA. The nitrites (NO2−), lipid-peroxidation (LPO), total-antioxidant-capacity (TAC), thiols, glutathione (GSH) and selenium (Se) were determined by spectrophotometry. The glucose, insulin and HOMA-IR (p < 0.001), 8-isoprostanes, 3-nitrotyrosine (p < 0.001) and LPO were increased (p = 0.02) while Vitamin D (p = 0.01), H2S, thiols, TAC, GSH and Se (p < 0.001) decreased in COVID-19 patients in comparison to HS. The SARS-CoV-2 infection resulted in alterations in the glucose−insulin axis that led to hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia and IR in patients with and without comorbidities. These alterations increase OS and NSS reflected in increases or decreases in some oxidative markers in plasma with major impact or fatal consequences in patients that course with metabolic syndrome. Moreover, subjects without comorbidities could have long-term alterations in the redox homeostasis after infection.

Impact on the Clinical Evolution of Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia and the Participation of the NFE2L2/KEAP1 Polymorphisms in Regulating SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

In patients with severe pneumonia due to COVID-19, the deregulation of oxidative stress is present. Nuclear erythroid factor 2 (NRF2) is regulated by KEAP1, and NRF2 regulates the expression of genes such as NFE2L2-KEAP1, which are involved in cellular defense against oxidative stress. In this study, we analyzed the participation of the polymorphisms of NFE2L2 and KEAP1 genes in the mechanisms of damage in lung disease patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Patients with COVID-19 and a control group were included. Organ dysfunction was evaluated using SOFA. SARS-CoV-2 infection was confirmed and classified as moderate or severe by ventilatory status and by the Berlin criteria for acute respiratory distress syndrome. SNPs in the gene locus for NFE2L2, rs2364723C>G, and KEAP1, rs9676881A>G, and rs34197572C>T were determined by qPCR. We analyzed 110 individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection: 51 with severe evolution and 59 with moderate evolution. We also analyzed 111 controls. Significant differences were found for rs2364723 allele G in severe cases vs. controls (p = 0.02); for the rs9676881 allele G in moderate cases vs. controls (p = 0.04); for the rs34197572 allele T in severe cases vs. controls (p = 0.001); and in severe vs. moderate cases (p = 0.004). Our results showed that NFE2L2 rs2364723C>G allele G had a protective effect against severe COVID-19, while KEAP1 rs9676881A>G allele G and rs34197572C>T minor allele T were associated with more aggressive stages of COVID-19.

Alteration in the Lipid Profile and the Desaturases Activity in Patients With Severe Pneumonia by SARS-CoV-2.

The kidnapping of the lipid metabolism of the host's cells by severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) allows the virus to transform the cells into optimal machines for its assembly and replication. Here we evaluated changes in the fatty acid (FA) profile and the participation of the activity of the desaturases, in plasma of patients with severe pneumonia by SARS-CoV-2. We found that SARS-CoV-2 alters the FA metabolism in the cells of the host. Changes are characterized by variations in the desaturases that lead to a decrease in total fatty acid (TFA), phospholipids (PL) and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs). These alterations include a decrease in palmitic and stearic acids (p ≤ 0.009) which could be used for the formation of the viral membranes and for the reparation of the host's own membrane. There is also an increase in oleic acid (OA; p = 0.001) which could modulate the inflammatory process, the cytokine release, apoptosis, necrosis, oxidative stress (OS). An increase in linoleic acid (LA) in TFA (p = 0.03) and a decreased in PL (p = 0.001) was also present. They result from damage of the internal mitochondrial membrane. The arachidonic acid (AA) percentage was elevated (p = 0.02) in the TFA and this can be participated in the inflammatory process. EPA was decreased (p = 0.001) and this may decrease of pro-resolving mediators with increase in the inflammatory process. The total of NEFAs (p = 0.03), PL (p = 0.001), cholesterol, HDL and LDL were decreased, and triglycerides were increased in plasma of the COVID-19 patients. Therefore, SARS-CoV-2 alters the FA metabolism, the changes are characterized by alterations in the desaturases that lead to variations in the TFA, PL, and NEFAs profiles. These changes may favor the replication of the virus but, at the same time, they are part of the defense system provided by the host cell metabolism in its eagerness to repair damage caused by the virus to cell membranes.

Índice de desregulación inmunológica como predictor de evolución hacia síndrome de insuficiencia respiratoria progresiva del adulto en pacientes con neumonía por SARS-CoV-2 / Immune dysregulation index as a predictor of evolution to acute respiratory distress syndrome in patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia / Índice de disregulação imunológica como preditor da evolução da síndrome de insuficiência respiratória progressiva do adultos em pacientes com pneumonia por SARS-CoV-2

Resumen: Introducción: Se han descrito los principios fisiopatológicos de la neumonía secundaria a infección por SARS-CoV-2, en donde se identificó la cascada de citocinas como principal factor para el desarrollo de lesiones orgánicas. Actualmente, se realizan mediciones de marcadores bioquímicos inflamatorios en la búsqueda de su relación con el pronóstico y posibles complicaciones. En un estudio reciente, se realizó un índice relacionando la interleucina 6 y los niveles de linfocitos y su asociación con la mortalidad en los pacientes con neumonía severa por SARS-CoV-2. El índice de desregulación inmunológica (IL-6/linfocitos) podría permitir estimar a los pacientes que evolucionarán hacia síndrome de insuficiencia respiratoria progresiva del adulto (SIRPA). Objetivos: Establecer si existe una relación entre el nivel de índice de desregulación inmunológica y la aparición del síndrome de insuficiencia respiratoria progresiva del adulto, en los pacientes con neumonía por SARS-CoV-2. Material y métodos: Se realizó el estudio observacional y retrolectivo de una cohorte, en el cual se incluyeron pacientes internados en el Centro Médico ABC con el diagnóstico de neumonía por SARS-CoV-2 de marzo a julio del año 2020, en quienes se realizaron mediciones de interleucina 6 y linfocitos de ingreso, se evaluó su progreso y desarrollo de complicaciones. Se efectuó un análisis univariado de los factores seleccionados, el procesamiento estadístico se elaboró en SPSS v 22.1, se determinaron medidas de frecuencia y de los factores de riesgo con pruebas de Fisher y χ2. Resultados: Se analizaron 346 pacientes, el índice de desregulación inmunológica presentó un promedio de 157 en el grupo correspondiente a SIRPA, mientras que en el grupo control el promedio fue de 38. De los pacientes con diagnóstico de SIRPA, el 18.6% fallecieron, mientras que dentro del grupo control sólo 0.47%. La curva ROC para el análisis de la sensibilidad y especificidad del índice como predictor de evolución hacia SIRPA resultó con un hallazgo de sensibilidad de 68.2% y una especificidad de 77% con un punto de corte de 99. Conclusión: La predicción de complicaciones en el contexto de SARS-CoV-2 permitirá tomar medidas oportunas; por lo que la existencia de índices predictivos es una herramienta útil pero que requiere análisis múltiples y validados en distintas poblaciones para contar con un nivel de seguridad alto al tomar decisiones basadas en ellos.En este estudio en particular, el índice de desregulación inmunológica se ha mostrado como un posible predictor de evolución hacia SIRPA; sin embargo, el establecimiento de medidas terapéuticas deberá continuar con relación a hallazgos clínicos, bioquímicos y de imagen.

Abstract: Introduction: The pathophysiological principles of pneumonia secondary to SARS-CoV-2 infection have been described, where the cytokine cascade was identified as the main factor for the development of organic lesions. Measurements of inflammatory biochemical markers are currently being carried out in search of their relationship with prognosis and possible complications. In a recent study, an index was made relating interleukin 6 and lymphocyte levels and their association with mortality in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia. The index of immune dysregulation (IL-6/lymphocytes) could allow estimating the patients that evolve towards acute respiratory distress syndrome. Objectives: To establish whether there is a relationship between the levels of the immune dysregulation index and the appearance of acute respiratory distress syndrome in patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia. Material and methods: We conducted a retrolective, observational cohort study, in which patients admitted to the ABC Medical Center with the diagnosis of pneumonia due to SARS-CoV-2 from March to July of 2020 were included, in them, measurements of interleukin 6 and lymphocytes on admission and their progress and development of complications were evaluated. A univariate analysis of the selected factors was carried out; the statistical analysis was elaborated in SPSS v 22.1, frequency measures were examined and the analysis of the risk factors was carried out with the Fisher and χ2 tests. Results: 346 patients were analyzed, the immune dysregulation index presented an average of 157 in the group corresponding to ARDS, while in the control group the average was 38. Of the patients with a diagnosis of ARDS, 18.6% died, while in the control group only 0.47%. The ROC curve was used for the analysis of the sensitivity and specificity of the index as a predictor of evolution towards ARDS with a sensitivity finding of 68.2% and a specificity of 77% with a cut-off point of 99. Conclusion: The prediction of complications in the context of SARS-CoV-2 will allow timely measures to be taken. The existence of predictive indices is a useful tool but it requires multiple and validated analyses in different populations to have a high level of safety when making decisions based on them. In this study, the immune dysregulation index has been shown as a possible predictor of evolution towards ARDS; however, the establishment of therapeutic measures should continue in relation to clinical, biochemical and imaging findings.

Resumo: Introdução: São descritos os princípios fisiopatológicos da pneumonia secundária à infecção por SARS-CoV-2, onde a cascata de citocinas foi identificada como o principal fator para o desenvolvimento de lesões orgânicas. Medidas de marcadores bioquímicos inflamatórios estão sendo realizadas em busca de sua relação com o prognóstico e possíveis complicações. Em um estudo recente, foi realizado um índice relacionando os níveis de interleucina 6 e de linfócitos e sua associação com a mortalidade em pacientes com pneumonia por SARS-CoV-2 grave. O índice de desregulação imunológica (IL-6/linfócitos) poderia permitir estimar os pacientes que irão evoluir para a síndrome do desconforto respiratório progressivo em adultos (SIRPA). Objetivos: Estabelecer se há uma relação entre o nível do índice de desregulação imunológica e o aparecimento da síndrome de insuficiência respiratória progressiva do adulto em pacientes com pneumonia por SARS-CoV-2. Material e métodos: Foi realizado um estudo de coorte observacional, retroletivo, que incluiu pacientes internados no Centro Médico do ABC com diagnóstico de pneumonia por SARS-CoV-2 de março a julho deste ano, nos quais foram realizadas dosagens de interleucina 6 e linfócitos na admissão, sua evolução e desenvolvimento de complicações. Realizou-se a análise univariada dos fatores selecionados, a análise estatística foi elaborada no SPSS v 22.1, as medidas de frequência e os fatores de risco foram determinados com teste de Fisher e χ2. Resultados: Foram analisados 346 pacientes, o índice de desregulação imunológica apresentou média de 157 no grupo correspondente ao SIRPA, enquanto no grupo controle a média foi de 38. Dos pacientes com diagnóstico de SIRPA 18.6% morreram durante o grupo controle apenas 0.47%. A curva ROC para análise da sensibilidade e especificidade do índice como preditor de evolução para SIRPA com uma de sensibilidade de 68.2% e uma especificidade de 77% com um ponto de corte de 99. Conclusão: A previsão de complicações no contexto da SARS-CoV-2 nos permitirá tomar medidas oportunas; portanto, a existência de índices preditivos é uma ferramenta útil, mas requer análises múltiplas e validadas em diferentes populações para ter um alto nível de segurança ao tomar decisões com base neles. Neste estudo em particular, o índice de desregulação imunológica foi mostrado como um possível preditor de evolução para SIRPA; entretanto, o estabelecimento de medidas terapêuticas deve continuar em relação aos achados clínicos, bioquímicos e de imagem.

Recomendaciones COVID-19: ventilación mecánica en anestesia. Lo que un intensivista tiene que contarle a un anestesiólogo / Recommendations: mechanical ventilation in anesthesia. What an intensivist has to tell to an anesthesiologist

Resumen: El objetivo de estas recomendaciones es que estén al alcance de cualquier anestesiólogo, para poder realizar una ventilación protectora en el paciente durante la pandemia COVID-19, en el que se enfrentará a una persona de características únicas, de difícil manejo ventilatorio en un escenario de crisis de escasez de recursos, falta y fatiga de personal de la salud. No recomendamos usar estas guías ante un escenario diferente.

Abstract: The objective of these recommendations is that they are within the reach of any anesthesiologist, in order to carry out protective ventilation in the patient during the COVID-19 pandemic, in which a patient with unique characteristics is confronted, with difficult ventilatory management in a setting crisis of scarcity of resources, lack and fatigue of health personnel. We do not recommend using these guides in a different setting.